"The Educational Benefits Claimed for Physical Education and School Sport: An Academic Review”
Dr. John Ferguson

By

Kathleen M. Armour, BEd(Hons) MA PhD
Loughborough University, England

 
 
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  This paper is a summary of an Academic Review that was commissioned by the British Educational Research Association (BERA) in 2006. BERA is organised around a number of Special Interest Groups (SIGS), one of which is the Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy SIG. In 2005-6, the British Education Research Association commissioned an Academic Review into ‘ The Educational Benefits Claimed for Physical Education & School Sport '. The purpose of the review was to seek research evidence to support or challenge the claims that are widely made by, or on behalf of, the physical education profession. The Review was undertaken in four broad domains - physical, social, affective and cognitive – reflecting the domains in which the benefits of physical education have traditionally been claimed. The Review was undertaken by a group of physical education & sport pedagogy researchers in the UK , and it also drew upon international expertise. What follows are some excerpts from that Review, the outcomes of which are interesting given the prominence of physical education and school sport (PESS) in government policy in England today. Finally, links are made to the previous article about accountability published on Sports Media in 2006. It is important to note that in each section below, only a small proportion of the Review is included to provide an example of the approach taken and some background to the questions about research that emerged from the process. The full Review will be published in the international journal ‘Research Papers in Education'.


2. Authors of the Review.

Richard Bailey, Roehampton University , Kathleen Armour, Loughborough University , David Kirk, Leeds Metropolitan University , Mike Jess, Edinburgh University , Ian Pickup, Roehampton University , Rachel Sandford, Loughborough University , and the BERA Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy Special Interest Group.

3. Introduction.

  2004 was designated the European Year of Education through Sport, and 2005 was named the United Nations' International Year of Physical Education and Sport. Implicit within these initiatives is a view that, in some way, PESS has significant and distinctive contributions to make to children, to schools, and to wider society. The precise nature of these contributions is not always clear, however, nor is the physical education profession usually held accountable for delivering them. For example, the International Council for Physical Education and Sport Science claims that PESS helps children to develop respect for the body – their own and others', contributes towards the integrated development of mind and body, develops an understanding of the role of aerobic and anaerobic physical activity in health, positively enhances self-confidence and self-esteem, and enhances social and cognitive development and academic achievement (ICSSPE, 2001). In a similar vein, a Council of Europe report suggests that PESS provides opportunities to meet and communicate with other people, to take different social roles, to learn particular social skills (such as tolerance and respect for others), and to adjust to team / collective objectives (such as co-operation and cohesion), and that it provides experience of emotions that are not available in the rest of life (Svoboda, 1994). The question is… can PESS really deliver all these things?


4. Physical Benefits.

  Without doubt, there is a broad understanding that the distinctive contribution PESS makes to a child's education is within the physical domain. The physical focus of PESS has shifted over time, moving from an initial health-related rationale in the first half of the twentieth century to more performance-related considerations following the Second World War, to concerns about the health impact of sedentary behaviours more recently. In the mid 1990s, a series of robust, longitudinal studies identified the importance of regular physical activity across the lifespan (United States Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). Physical activity emerged as an important public health issue and has remained in the political spotlight ever since (HEA, 1998; Scottish Executive, 2003). Moreover, with adult physical inactivity continuing to be a concern and attempts to rectify this situation being at best equivocal (King et al. , 1998; Sevick et al. , 2000), the role of PESS in promoting engagement in lifelong physical activity has become widely accepted (Green, 2002; Penney and Jess, 2004).


  At one level, this is surprising because the evidence of significant physical benefits for young people from physical activity is limited (Biddle et al. , 2004; Cale and Harris, 2005). For example, there is evidence of a clear link between childhood physical activity and bone strength, with its potential impact on osteoporosis later in life (Bass, 2000; MacKelvie et al. , 2002). However, the relationship with cardiovascular disease risk factors is less apparent, with physical activity seemingly having little impact on children's blood pressure (Tolfrey et al. , 2000) or blood lipid levels (Despres et al. , 1990). It has been suggested that this may, in part, be due to the fact that many young people are already healthy and that most disease end-points appear later in life (Biddle et al. , 2004). In addition, the role PESS can play in combating the well-documented increase in childhood obesity (Baur, 2001; Reilly and Dorotsky, 1999) is unclear. There is some cross-sectional evidence that physical inactivity is linked to the development of obesity (Steinbeck, 2001) but, as yet, studies investigating the role of physical activity in childhood obesity have been ‘uninspiring' (Biddle et al. , 2004).


 So, whereas it would appear that focusing on physical fitness may be a productive focus for PESS, from a behavioural perspective, it has also been suggested that young people need to gain the appropriate knowledge, understanding and behavioural skills to ensure physical activity becomes a regular part of their daily life (Fairclough and Stratton, 2005). What seems clear is that further research is required to establish the precise nature of physical benefits accruing from involvement in different forms of PESS provision.


5. Social benefits

  It is claimed that purposeful engagement in PESS has the potential to engender in young people positive social behaviours (such as co-operation, personal responsibility and empathy) and to address a number of contemporary social issues relating to problematic youth behaviour, such as depression, crime, truancy and alcohol or drug abuse (Burt, 1998; DCMS, 1999; Hellison et al. , 2000; Lawson, 1997; QCA, 2001). Thus, it is argued, the value of PESS lies in the acquisition and accumulation of various personal, social and socio-moral skills which, in turn, can act as social capital to enable young people to function successfully (and acceptably) in a broad range of social situations (Bailey, 2005).


  Discussion on the claimed social benefits of engagement in PESS is founded largely on the belief that the nature of physical activity renders it a suitable vehicle for the promotion of personal and social responsibility and the development of pro-social skills (Martinek and Hellison, 1997; Miller et al. , 1997; Parker and Stiehl, 2005). The social element of participation and, more specifically, the need for individuals to work collaboratively, cohesively and constructively, are believed to encourage (and necessitate) the development of a number of skills such as trust (Priest, 1998), a sense of community (Ennis, 1999), empathy ( Moore , 2002), personal and corporate responsibility (Priest and Gass, 1997) and cooperation (Miller et al. , 1997). It is important to note, however, that the role of the PESS teacher is recognised as central to the social learning process. It has been suggested, for example, that teachers and leaders who are respectful, fair and honest are particularly well placed to act as positive role models (and models of positive behaviour) for the young people with whom they work (Martinek and Hellison, 1997; Nichols, 1997; Parker and Stiehl, 2005).


  The increasing levels of interest in the youth development potential of PESS programmes, have led to questions about the nature of the evidence supporting such claims. However, while the findings of evaluation research are generally positive, researchers have generally found that inconclusive evidence usually prevents firm conclusions from being drawn about the precise impact of youth development programmes (e.g. Morris et al. , 2003; Nichols, 1997). Researchers have also commented on the difficulties of determining causal relationships between participation in a programme and positive impact, noting that it is not always possible to know what other intermediate processes have been at work (Coalter, 2002a; Granger, 1998; Maxwell, 2004).


  Nonetheless, the research conducted to date has provided a wealth of information on environmental and contextual factors that facilitate positive experiences for young people in physical activity programmes (within and outside school). These include: having credible leadership for programmes (Martinek and Hellison, 1997), involving young people in decision making (Andrews and Andrews, 2003), emphasising the significance of social relationships (Shields and Bredemeier, 1995), and ensuring that there is an explicit focus on learning processes (Sandford et al. , 2006). As Coalter (2002b) points out, sharing examples of good practice such as these is a useful way of informing the development of future initiatives. It is argued that what is needed now is a greater understanding of the precise mechanisms that result in PESS/physical activity programmes leading to improved social behaviour, a reduction in crime and social inclusion (Bailey, 2005).In other words, there is a need to determine not only the product of participation but also the process of change.


6. Affective Benefits

  The affective domain is difficult to define, owing to its subjective, imprecise and personal nature (Pope, 2005). ‘Affective' is generally seen as synonymous with psychological and emotional well-being and encompassing a range of assets that include mental health, positive self-regard, coping skills, conflict resolution skills, mastery motivation, a sense of autonomy, moral character and confidence (National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 2002). Components of the affective domain also include dimensions such as emotion, preference, choice and feeling, beliefs, aspirations, attitudes and appreciations (Beane, 1990), providing wide scope for philosophical and psychological research to investigate associations between physical activity and psychological well-being (Biddle and Mutrie, 2001).


  There is strong evidence for the enhancement of children's self-esteem through participation in sport and physical activity (Fox, 1988, 2000). Structured play and specific PESS programmes also appear to contribute to the development of self-esteem in children (Gruber, 1985), although physical self constructs, rather than a ‘global' self-esteem are thought to be the most likely benefits (Anshel et al., 1986; Blackman et al., 1988). It has been suggested that self-esteem is influenced by an individual's perception of competence or adequacy to achieve (Harter, 1987). Enjoyment experienced during physical activity and sport can reinforce self-esteem, which, in turn, can lead to enhanced motivation to participate further (Brustad, 1993; Sonstroem, 1997; Williams and Gill, 1995). Kimiecik and Harris (1996) suggested that enjoyment allows for the development of intrinsic motivation, a notion supported by Deci and Ryan (1985) who argued that a high level of intrinsic motivation follows from feelings of enjoyment and low levels of anxiety. Some, however, feel that fun is counterproductive to the cause of PESS (Whitehead, 1988) and that it trivialises physical activity. It should also be said that children who do not choose to take part in physical activity outside school are not necessarily those for whom PESS is not fun; reasons such as peer and family influences or lack of opportunities to participate may be the overriding factors at work (Brennan and Bleakley, 1997).


  It is clear, however, that not all pupils enjoy PESS activities, at least when presented in particular ways (Ennis, 1999; Evans and Penney, 1996; Flavier et al., 2002; Jirasek, 2003; Williams and Bedward, 2001). Learned helplessness, development of a negative self-concept and ensuing avoidance of an activity are perceived by some to be negative outcomes of poor experiences in PESS (Biddle, 1999; Fox, 1992; Hellison, 1973). Strean and Garcia Bengoechea (2001) concluded that it is the individual's experience of sport that determines whether participation is viewed as positive or negative, whilst Mahoney and Stattin (2000) contended that the structure and context of the activity is important in determining whether participation leads to positive or negative outcomes.


  Although physical activity can be associated with numerous dimensions of affective development, the mechanisms by which this development occurs are less clear (Dishman, 1995). It remains difficult to conclude whether the relationship between physical activity and affective development is causal or casual and further investigations exploring why and how affective development occurs within activity specific contexts for particular groups of children and young people are required.


7. Cognitive benefits

  Studies of cognitive benefits focus on the development of learning skills and academic performance associated with participation in PESS. As such, they could be said to test the frequently made claims that a ‘healthy body leads to a healthy mind', and that PESS can support intellectual development in children ( Snyder and Sprietzer, 1977) . Classical writers on education, such as Plato and Aristotle, and Rousseau, writing in the eighteenth century, have all asserted a view to the effect that the development of the mind needs to be balanced by the development of the body (Hills, 1998). More recently, numerous authors have argued for transfer effects of PESS to other areas of the school curriculum (Pirie, 1995); whilst others have suggested that physical activity stimulates the development of generic cognitive or learning skills (Barr and Lewin, 1994).


  Such claims ought to be understood within the context of an increasing concern by some parents that, whilst PESS has its place, it should not interfere with the real business of schooling, which many still believe to be academic achievement and examination results (Lau et al ., 2004; Lindner, 2002). Thus, it is not surprising that some of the most strenuous advocates of a link between PESS and cognitive outcomes are professional associations and advocacy groups, who claim that quality PESS helps improve a child's mental alertness, academic performance, readiness to learn, and enthusiasm for learning.


  A classic study of the relationship between PESS and general school performance was carried out in France between 1951 and 1961 (Hervet, 1952). Researchers reduced ‘academic' curriculum time by 26 per cent, replacing it with PESS, yet academic results did not worsen and there were fewer discipline problems, greater attentiveness and less absenteeism. Similarly, the Hindmarsh Project in Australia assessed the effects of a 14-week daily physical activity programme on a range of measures, including academic performance (Dwyer et al ., 1983). Despite the loss of 45 to 60 minutes of classroom teaching time each day, there were no signs of an adverse effect on numeracy and literacy.


  More recent studies have found small improvements for some children in academic performance when time for PESS is increased in their school day (Sallis et al. , 1999; Shephard, 1996). A review of three large-scale studies found that academic performance is maintained and occasionally enhanced by an increase in a student's levels of PESS, despite a reduction in the time for the study of academic material (Shephard, 1997). It has also been found that PESS and physical activity levels are higher in relatively high-performing than low-performing schools (Lindner, 2002). These findings should, however, be taken with some caution, as other studies found no relationship, or a trivial one, between participation in PESS and educational achievement (Melnick et al ., 1988, 1992; Tremblay et al ., 2000).


  Some of the most enthusiastic support for the claim that there is a relationship between PESS / physical activity and cognitive benefits comes from small-scale studies, based on self-administered and self-evaluated designs (BBC News, 2001). Such studies ought not to be disregarded, but neither should they be used as the basis of bold assertions that increasing certain activities improves school performance. Of course, a causal relationship will always be difficult to establish, since to do so would require either withholding treatment from a group of children or somehow accounting for the wide range of confounding variables (Hills, 1998). Nevertheless, some studies have utilised large-scale, controlled experimental designs (Caterino and Polak, 1999; Raviv, 1990; Sallis et al ., 1999; Shephard, 1996), and these might act as examples of workable approaches for future research.



8. Could the physical education profession be held accountable?

  The findings of the Academic Review can be summarised as follows:

•  A number of claims are made about the broad educational impact of PESS upon young people; there is a prevailing belief that engagement in PESS is, somehow, a ‘good thing';

•  Robust evidence is needed to support some of the claims made for the benefits of PESS, but the accumulation of evidence suggests that PESS can have some/many benefits for some/many pupils, given the right social, contextual and pedagogical circumstances;

•  Different – or better – research is needed to focus on the contexts and processes that are most likely to exploit the potential of the PESS learning environment for young people's educational benefit.

  A concern for the physical education profession in England is that the scale of current government funding for physical education leads to high expectations that physical education can achieve some very challenging aims. But what happens if the profession cannot deliver the educational outcomes that have been defined. A question was posed in a previous paper for Sports Media (Armour, Feb 2006) about what would need to change if physical education was to be held accountable for what it claims to do – or what is claimed on its behalf. Claims made about health outcomes were considered. For example, it was suggested that if physical educators want to have an impact on enhancing young people's physical activity levels in order to improve their health, then it could be argued that some traditional physical education practices should be discontinued because they don't appear to ‘work' for many young people. It was also suggested that radical changes to pedagogy would be required, particularly if PESS is to meet the daunting challenges embedded in the rhetoric of meeting the individual needs of each child. It was concluded, as Tinning (2005, p. 12) warned: ‘we should be rather more modest in the claims we make for the contributions of sport and physical education to active lifestyles'.


  If the PESS profession is to be held even partially accountable for the claims made for educational benefits from participation in its programmes, then it could be argued that fundamental changes to PESS policy and practice are required. However, while it seems obvious that such changes should be based on rigorous, credible research evidence about the needs of children, the history of the development of physical education demonstrates that this has rarely been the case. Moreover, in concluding each domain of Academic Review, it becomes clear that we simply do not have enough good quality research available to underpin knowledge at the level that is required to inform practice. This is a problem that requires physical education researchers, working collaboratively across national and disciplinary boundaries, to resolve.


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