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"4
STEPS TO SUCCESS"
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| Why Evaluate? |
The
routine analysis of coaching behaviors is a process that has steadily
gained favor in the arena of athletics. Since the first observational
data were reported in the 1970's, the process of systematically observing
and coding coaching behavior has evolved into the development of several
specifically designed systems (Darst,Zakrajsek, & Mancini, 1989).
Many coaching
behaviors of more visible or "revenue producing" sports are
more familiar to most athletic supervisors for several reasons. First,
the vast public popularity of these "revenue" sports provides
the supervisor with a greater familiarity with many of the sports processes.
Second, many athletic supervisors have been promoted to their current
posts from coaching positions within these highly visible sports, providing
a great deal of inherent comfort and familiarity with these sports'
processes. Unfortunately, very few athletic supervisors are familiar
with the general, everyday processes of "non-revenue producing"
sports, and even fewer are remotely aware of the delicate performance
and teaching processes pertaining to the sports.
With the ever-increasing scrutiny on the profession of coaching from
inside and outside athletics, as well as the logical need for financial
efficiency within collegiate athletic departments, a thorough yet equitable
source of evaluation is needed for coaches of non-revenue producing
sports (henceforth referred to as "minor sports"). This document
presents a four-part plan that attempts to address as many elements
of the coaching evaluation process as possible for minor sport coaches,
as well as an examination of evaluative techniques common in the area
of teacher education.
Because
of the diverse nature of each of the parts, it is the recommendation
of the authors that, when arriving at his/her ultimate decision, the
sport supervisor give equal consideration and weight to each of the
categories unless a grievous error or radical shortcoming exists within
one or more of the parts.
| STEP 1: Coaches Interaction With Game Parties |
In the field of coaching, one must interact with numerous groups both on and off the field. Measuring the quality and quantity of interactions between coaches and other participants in athletic contests would be a most helpful measurement in determining the overall effectiveness of coaches (Lombardo, 1989).
The instrument recommended to measure the interaction between coaches and other sport participants is the Lombardo Coaching Behavior Analysis System (LOCOBAS). Its purpose is to describe and record the interaction between the coach and athletes, officials, assistant coaches, and others within the context of sport while focusing on the variables of the quantity and quality on interaction (Lombardo, 1989).
Both verbal and nonverbal behaviors are measured by LOCOBAS. Specifically, these behaviors are categorized as positive verbal, positive nonverbal, neutral verbal., neutral nonverbal, negative verbal, and negative nonverbal. Also recorded are on-task behaviors in which the coach is involved in tasks related to the game with no interaction occurring and off-task behavior (Lombardo, 1989).
Each of
these behavioral categories (except for on-task and off-task) is further
coded according to one of the five sources of their interaction: one
individual, multiple players on the coach's team, assistants on the
coach's team, game officials, and others, including fans, opposing players
and coaches, etc. (Lombardo, 1989).
| Step II: Evaluation of Practice Sessions |
In continuity with the old adage that "perfect practice makes perfect,"
a coach's practice sessions could be considered the most critical element
of his/her job. Proper informative statements to athletes regarding
skills and strategies are crucial in a successful practice. Measuring
the types of behavior exhibited by a coach and supervisor determine
how effectively this valuable and critical athletic time is used (Lacy
& Darst, 1989).
The instrument recommended for evaluation of a coach's practice sessions
is the Arizona State University Observation Instrument (ASUOI), a refined
observational tool designed to provide more insight into behaviors exhibited
by coaches during practice sessions. These behaviors are defined by
fourteen different codes:
|
1.
Use of first name |
8.
Negative modeling |
| Step III: Administrative / Miscellaneous Factor Assessment |
Many critical elements of the coaching process cannot be sufficiently measured, if at all, by any standard coaching evaluation instrument. Other important behaviors and processes occur away from the field of play. The critical nature of these processes should not go unrecorded or unevaluated by the sport supervisor. These processes could include such items as NCAA regulation compliance, conference regulation compliance, university regulation and employee policy compliance, academic eligibility records of student-athletes, recruiting processes, and "off-the-field" contributions to the overall well being of the department, university, and/or sport.
One method for assessment of atypical coaching elements is the use of one or more of several high-inference techniques. These techniques are extremely useful, but they must also be placed in perspective by the supervisor and subordinate because of their highly subjective nature, specific uses, strengths, and weaknesses (Treanor, 1996). They are, however, very effective evaluation tools and their use in evaluating administrative or miscellaneous coaching processes is highly recommended. In many evaluative situations, use of high-inference techniques should be incorporated into the evaluation as a measure of "off-the-field" and/or administrative elements involved in the coaching process. High inference techniques would include the following:
Intuitive
Assessment
Many supervisors rely on their instincts to evaluate subordinates. The
benefits of this evaluation system are that it is quick, easy to use,
requires no previous training, and does not use any specific tools or
instruments. It is also useful when attempting to obtain a "global"
sense of the coach's drills, teaching techniques, strengths, and weaknesses
(Treanor, 1996).
"Eyeballing"
This is simply a period of time when the supervisor evaluates the subordinate
without recording anything; instead, he or she simply makes mental notes
on things such as safety, discipline, and overall effectiveness. Like
intuitive assessment, it is a quick and easy method of assessment (Treanor,
1996).
Anecdotal
Notes
Keeping anecdotal notes, or highlighting those coaching behaviors the
supervisor thinks are important, is an excellent method for tracking
major or minor occurrences. Several sessions on anecdotal note taking
can be combined to form a composite picture of the coach's ability (Treanor,
1996).
Checklists
In order to determine whether a coach exhibits certain behaviors or
performs certain tasks, a simple checklist can be used as an evaluative
instrument. Perhaps the greatest benefit of checklists is that they
can help the supervisor monitor aspects of coaching which may be difficult
to measure, such as motivation and enthusiasm, player control and management,
and a coach's rapport and relationship with players (Treanor, 1996).
Rating
Scales
Rating scales primarily involve the assessment of more technical aspects
of coaching Behaviors. These aspects can include items such as instructional
competency, or the knowledge of subject matter and planning/preparation;
professional attributes, or motivation toward coaching and rapport with
players; and personal attributes, such as maturity, promptness, appearance,
and communication skills (Treanor, 1996).
| STEP IV: Opinions of Athletes |
One element of coaching that is often suggested to be the most important in affecting the nature of participation in sport is the coach's supervision of athletes. Quite obviously, athletes are the individuals most affected by a coach. Quite obviously, too, is the fact that their perception of the coach is a great determinant on the end performance results. Therefore, the athletes' perception of their coach should be an integral part of any overall coaching evaluation process (Rushall & Wiznuk, 1985).
The instrument recommended for evaluation of the opinion of athletes on their coach is the Coach Evaluation Questionnaire (CEQ). This 36-item questionnaire is composed of statements indicating the desirable characteristics of a coach that are valid and can be measured reliably (Rushall & Wiznuk, 1985). The total score , derived on the basis of the degree of the athlete's "agreement" response to an item, is a measure of how a coach is actually perceived in comparison to coaching "ideals." Since it is focused on positive characteristics, the CEQ positively motivates the coach to attain more of the desired characteristics (Rushall & Wiznuk,1985).
| Trends From Teacher Education |
The field of teacher education has sought to find effective ways of evaluating and improving the performance of teachers in the classroom and the gymnasium. In recent years it has been found that teachers can improve their teaching, sometimes very quickly, when they have specific goals to reach, when their teaching is observed, and when they receive regular feedback based on those observations (Siedentop, 1986). Similar literature with similar results exists in a number of areas, including counselor education and the field of coaching and athletics. The majority of these advances have occurred through the wider use of systematic observation instruments (Darst, Zakrajsek, & Mancini, 1989).
Systematic observation has been the basis for teaching research and should be the cornerstone on which teaching skills are honed. It is rather easy to do and requires only some basic understandings and practice. Some of the techniques include event recording, duration recording, interval recording, time sampling, and self-recording. Anyor all of these methods are easily adaptable to the evaluation of coaches within the athletic arena. Since the methods have been used extensively, their reliability is well documented. They are relatively easy to use and often require nothing more sophisticated than a tape recorder or a stopwatch. It is essential that the performancecategories be well defined, as this adds to the reliability of the instrument selected (Siedentop, 2000).Event
Recording
One of the most useful methods of collecting data. Any action or reaction
of ateacher, coach, student, or athlete that can be defined can be measured
by countingthe number of times it occurs. Aspects of interaction can
also be measured withthis method. Event recording can be done continuously
and the data converted to arate per minute. Sampling could also be in
short intervals, which are spaced throughoutthe teaching episode or
athletic practice session (Hall, 1971).
Duration
Recording
Duration recording uses time as the measurement criteria and the raw
data is expressed in minutes and seconds. The data is converted to a
percentage by merely dividing the total time of a session into the time
derived from duration recording. The result is expressed as a percentage
of total time spent in a particular activity. Duration recording can
be done with short samples, just as with event recording. This method
works nicely for any behavior in which the length of time spent in the
behavior provides the best estimate of the importance of the behavior.
This instrument is also quite useful in the area of sport education
(Siedentop, 2000).
Interval
Recording
The behavior is observed for short time periods and the behavior which
best describes that time period is determined. An observer might use
20 secondintervals. In the first 20 seconds, the teacher or coach is
observed. In the second20-second interval, the data is recorded. Intervals
should not be longer than 20 seconds and may be as small as 6 seconds.
The data is expressed as a percentage of intervals in which each behavior
occurs. This technique can also be used to estimate time involvements,
since all measurements are in minutes and seconds.A pre-recorded audiotape
is useful to signal the beginning and end of an "observe"or
"record" segment. It is suggested that no more than three
individuals be observed by one observer during a segment (Rink, 2002).
Time
Sampling
A technique used to gather periodic data on individuals or members of
a group. This method has also been referred to as Placheck recording
(Planned Activity Check) (Siedentop, 2000). The observer scans the individual,
or individuals,and records the information for the behavior of interest.
Scanning should not take more than 10 seconds and the intervals should
be spaced throughout the entire class or athletic practice session.
Behaviors such as effort, participation, and productivitymay be areas
of interest when supervisors evaluate coaches or teachers and the performance
of their athletes or students. When looking at the behaviors of a groupwhich
is being coached or taught by a specific individual, percentages can
be derivedfrom the raw data. The size of the entire group can be divided
into the appropriate figure to determine this information. Twelve time
samples during a one hour practice / teaching episode will take just
2:00 of observation time, thus allowing the observer or supervisor time
to complete other observations.
Teachers and coaches can self-record certain behaviors which are important to them without detracting from their work. This information can serve as documentation for their immediate supervisors, as well as improve their respective skills. Small tape recorders can be used to record verbal behaviors. The tape can be listened to and analyzed for important variables such as skill feedback or coaching strategies. Stop watches or chronographs can be used to keep track of how time is spent during a practice session or class period. Wrist counters are also quite useful when self-recording. Instruction time, management time, and time spent on offense or defense can yield valuable information for the educator / coach. Video taping and the use of a wireless microphone can be extremely useful when seeking to self-evaluate or provide further information for education / sport education supervisors (Siedentop, 2000). Athletic coaches have used videotaping or filming as an evaluative tool for their respective teams for years. Coaches and teachers who sincerely want to improve their abilities can benefit greatly from videotapes of their classes and practice sessions. Sport education supervisors may want to regularly collect game performances for use in their objective assessment of coaches.
| Parting Thoughts |
The
evaluative similarities which exist between the coaching and teaching
professions is quite evident. Both entities are concerned with progress
and improvement within their respective disciplines. Evaluation and
assessment of those coaching in the non-revenue sports should be regarded
as just as important to the total athletic program as the "major",
revenue producing sports and their coaching staffs. A supervisor's objective
evaluation of his / her non-revenue coaching personnel is extremely
important and will further enhance the overall sports program within
respective athletic departments. "If you're not assessing, you're
not coaching!"
| References |
Darst, P.W., Zakrajsek, D.B., & Mancini, V.H. (1989). Analyzing
physical education and sport instruction(2nd ed.) Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics Books.
Hall, V. (1971). The measurement of behavior. Lawrence, KS: H
& H Enterprises.
Lacy A.C., & Darst, P.W. (1989). The Arizona State University observation
instrument (ASUOI). In P.W. Darst, D.B. Zakrajsek, & V.H. Mancini
(Eds.), Analyzing physical education and sport instruction (pp.
369-377). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Books.
Lombardo, B.J. (1989). The Lombardo coaching behavior analysis system.
In P.W. Darst, D.B. Zakrajsek, & V.H. Mancini (Eds.), Analyzing
physical education and sport instruction (pp. 353-359). Champaign,
IL: Human Kinetics Books
Rink, Judith.
(2002). Observation Techniques and Tools. Vicki Malinee &
Carlotta Seely (Eds.). Teaching Physical Education For Learning
(pp. 342-343), New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Rushall, B.S. & Wiznuk, K. (1985). Athletes' assessment of the coach-the
coach evaluation questionnaire. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport
Science, 10 (3), 157-161.
Siedentop, Daryl, & Tannehill, Deborah. (2000). Traditional Methods
For Assessing Teaching. Michele Sordi & Sylvia Stein Wright
(Eds.), Developing Teaching Skills in Physical Education (pp.
324-328), Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company.
Treanor,
L.J. (1996). Help for the cooperating teacher: how to use high-inference
techniques. Strategies, January, 5-8.
| Start the discussion: |
1. Do you formally evaluate coaches at your respective schools / universities?
2. What evaluative instruments have you found to be effective?
3. Do you evaluate the "revenue" and "non-revenue" producing sports coaches?
4. What
particular problem areas have you discovered with regard to the evaluation
of coaches?
5. Is your administration supportive of your efforts involving coaching
evaluations? Why or why not?
| How to get involved in the discussion ? |
First copy the above questions ( you'll paste them into the reply form of the discussion forum) and then ...
Just click onto this link
October 2003 - Dr. Christopher
Cushion will start with a new article.
Have a good discussion,
co-ordinator
Guy Van Damme